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Measuring Metal Strength : Tensile Strength and Impact Strength

Measuring Metal Strength : Tensile Strength and Impact StrengthTensile strength and impact strength are two of the most important factors to consider when choosing a metal for a particular project, particularly when it comes to structural applications. It’s critical to understand these mechanical properties and how to test them before choosing the right metal for your project. What Is Tensile Strength?Tensile strength is a measurement of a metal’s resistance to deformation and failure as it is subjected to loads that tear it apart (known as tensile loads). The tensile strength of a material is usually measured in pounds per square inch (PSI) or Pascal (Pa). Tensile strength is of 3 types that is : Tensile Yield Strength.Ultimate Tensile Strength.Fracture Tensile Strength.The yield strength of a metal is the strength it has until it starts to deform plastically. The ultimate tensile strength of a metal is its highest tensile strength, which is normally discovered after plastic deformation has begun. The strength of the metal at the point of final failure is known as fracture tensile strength. Testing Tensile Strength:A tensile testing machine is needed to better measure the tensile strength of a material. This machine is made up of two sets of jaws, a control unit, and cylinders that generate tensile load power. A metal specimen is loaded into the jaws to perform the examination. In most cases, the metal is machined to be stronger where the jaws clamp it than it is in the middle. The control unit activates the cylinders, and one or both sets of jaws begin to shift away from one another, causing the metal to tensile. Data on how much force was used is retrieved from the control device until the material reaches its point of failure.The force data is then combined with the area of the metal’s cross section to determine the force over area unit, such as PSI or Pa. A stress-strain curve can be used to show the tensile test results. Since so many metals are subjected to a tensile load during their service life, tensile strength is a mechanical property that is commonly recorded. Chains for lifting or towing, fasteners when tightened, or structural metals in a skyscraper when the wind adds weight to the structure are some functional cases where tensile strength is a critical factor. What is the concept of impact strength?The power of a metal to withstand collision energy while preventing cracking or fracture is referred to as impact strength. Impact strength, also referred to as hardness, is usually measured in Foot -Pounds or ft-lbf else by Joules per metre or J/m. Testing Impact StrengthImpact Strength can be measured in a variety of ways. The Charpy V-notch test is one of the most often used method of testing. A metal specimen is machined to a size determined by a standard and a notch precision machined into the middle to perform a Charpy V-notch examination. This functions like a geometric stress concentrator, causing the substance to crack in the exact spot desired during testing. This notch must be machined with great precision because it is critical for retrieving correct test data.A Charpy V-notch tester is then used to analyse the metal sample. The Charpy V-notch tester consists of a specimen vice and a horizontally positioned pendulum with a known weight. The pendulum is released during the measurement, and the energy consumed by the metal as the pendulum hits and deforms it is measured. The amount of energy consumed is then combined with the metal’s dimensional values to determine the metal’s impact power. This test is often performed at a variety of temperatures because temperature has a significant influence on metal impact ability. The Izod impact strength test is another choice for determining hardness. Since metals are exposed to crashes and impacts – even if unintentional – in too many applications, impact strength is a significant mechanical property to understand. A hammer head colliding with an individual, stamping dies, and chisels are all examples of impact stresses applied to metals.

How to prevent metal corrosion

How to prevent metal corrosion What causes corrosion?Corrosion is the process where metal degrades as it comes into physical contact with a gas or liquid. This contact causes an electrochemical reaction which results in oxidisation on the metal’s surface and is often visible to the naked eye. Most metals are susceptible to corrosion. Metals are used extensively in harsh environments such as automotive, marine, construction, mining, nuclear, and oil and gas industries, as well as in almost every aspect of daily life. Corrosion can have a catastrophic effect if the materials in use degrade and become unfit for purpose which means there are important safety, legal, and financial implications of metal corrosion and degradation of materials. Types of corrosion.Corrosion Engineering, authored in 1967 by Mars Fontana and Norbert Greene, identified eight forms of corrosion; these included general attack corrosion, localised corrosion, and environmental cracking. The most frequently encountered form of corrosion in metals is general attack corrosion where an electrochemical reaction affects the surface of the metal causing it to break down. Once the surface is broken down, the metal weakens which brings about its ultimate failure. Preventing corrosion.Choosing the correct metalOne of the easiest ways to prevent corrosion is to select the most appropriate metal for the job. Aluminium and stainless steel are both corrosion resistant. Aluminium does not corrode because it has protection from the oxide layer which occurs naturally, and stainless steel is resistant to corrosion because of the addition of chromium to the alloy. Chromium protects the material by creating a film which prevents gas or liquid from coming in to contact with the surface. Other alloys, such as aluminium alloy, can be protected by anodising. This is where a thick aluminium oxide layer is created by a process of controlled oxidisation. You can read more about anodising in our article available here. Cathodic or anodic protectionProtection from corrosion through cathodic or anodic methods are collectively known as ‘sacrificial coatings.’ This is where the base metal is coated with another metal that is more - or less - susceptible to corrosion. To protect metals cathodically, a base metal such as steel is galvanised with another metal like zinc. Zinc is a metal that corrodes faster than steel so when oxidisation of the zinc takes place, oxidisation of the steel is inhibited; because the zinc oxidises first, the zinc is sacrificed and the steel benefits from its protection. This process of protection is useful for metals used in pipelines and in marine and oil industries. With anodic protection, a less active metal is used to coat the important base metal. Tin is a less active metal than steel and oxidises at a slower rate than steel. The steel will be protected from oxidisation as long as the tin coating remains in place, as the tin is the first line of defence. Paint or powder coatingsPaint or powder coatings are the most cost-effective way of preventing corrosion of metals. The paint or powder creates a barrier between the metal and the corrosive gas or liquid. Powder coatings can be applied to aluminium, steel, bronze, copper, brass, or titanium and are available in a range of presentations including acrylic, epoxy, and polyester. The powder coating is applied by spraying it on to clean metal then heating the metal until the powder fuses with it, the resulting finish is a clean, smooth surface that gives protection over a lengthy period.  Corrosion inhibitorsCorrosion inhibitors chemically suppress corrosion and are applied either as a protective surface coating or as a solution that creates a chemical reaction to form a film on the surface of the metal to prevent oxidisation. Protective coatings include metal oxides which are applied by a process called passivation. Corrosion inhibitors are most commonly used commercially in the manufacture of vehicle chassis and should be applied to both inner and outer faces of the metal to ensure maximum protection. Maintenance and monitoringMonitoring the condition of metals, especially those being used in harsh environments, can help to prevent corrosion. Regular inspection and monitoring of the surface condition, looking for cracks and pitting, alongside a proactive maintenance programme can extend the lifespan of metals in use. Treatments can be applied or components replaced before long term damage to structures or component parts takes place. Environmental corrosion protectionCorrosion can be prevented or reduced by calculated environmental measures. When measures are taken to control aggressive environments, the chemical reactions that cause corrosion can be dramatically reduced. Measures to reduce the threat of corrosion can include controlling other external chemicals and reducing the exposure to saline solutions. By ensuring the correct metal is selected for a particular job, or that the grade chosen has the chemical properties suited to use in a particular environment, damage to structures can be minimised or avoided. Taking the time to research the correct grade can save valuable metal resources, time, and money.

Which metals are magnetic?

Which metals are magnetic?What is a magnet?A magnet is an object that generates a magnetic field, these always contain metal, however, not all metals are magnetic. Magnets are almost everywhere you look, in applications as tiny as microchips all the way up to industrial motors, fuel pumps and power generators. In fact, the famous particle accelerator the Large Hadron Collider consists of roughly 10,000 superconducting magnets spanning 27 kilometres! Magnetic MetalsThe most commonly thought of magnetic metal is iron. This also means any alloy containing iron is also magnetic to some degree, including many types of steel. Below id a brief overview of different types of magnetic metals. Ferromagnetic Ferromagnetic materials are usually chosen for a combination of strength, corrosion-resistance and coercivity (the ability to resist demagnetisation when exposed to an external magnetic field). Some rare-earth metals, nickel, cobalt, iron, and alloyed metals that contain these elements are ferromagnetic. The most common of these are ferrite magnets, made from an alloy of iron oxide and one or more other metal. They are divided into two basic subsets, hard ferrites and soft ferrites. Hard ferrites, also known as ceramic or permanent magnets, are extremely common and cheap to produce so are found in many household products such as the classic fridge magnet. Alnico magnets (so called as they are primarily composed of aluminium, nickel, and cobalt) are an inexpensive and common example of a strong and stable permanent magnet. Hard ferrites are also commonly produced by alloying barium or strontium with iron oxide. Soft ferrites lose their magnetism much quicker and are often found in electronic applications such as transformers and inductors. Common examples included Manganese-Zinc alloys (MnZn) and Nickel-Zinc alloys (NiZn). Soft ferrites are sometimes referred to as temporary or non-permanent magnets. ElectromagnetsSimply speaking, an electromagnet is produced by coiling a wire (usually copper) around a metal core made from a ferromagnetic metal such as iron or nickel and sending an electric current down it to generate a magnetic field within the coil. The amount of current running through the wire directly affects the strength of the magnetic field created within it, and magnetism is lost as soon as the current is stopped. Electromagnets can be found in motors, generators, loudspeakers and MRI machines; anywhere that requires an adjustable magnetic field. Rare Earth – Samarium-Cobalt and Neodymium Magnets Despite the name, the rare-earth elements are actually found in relative abundance, though they aren’t as evenly distributed or easy to find as other materials. Rare-earth magnets produce a far greater magnetic field than the average ferrite magnet, although they are fragile, brittle and some corrode easily so tend to require additional protection such as plating. Samarium-Cobalt magnets (unsurprisingly made from the two metallic elements, samarium and cobalt) are extremely strong, corrode less easily and are resistant to demagnetisation and utilised for their ability to perform under extreme temperatures, up to 300 °C. For this reason they can be found in generators, motors, pumps, and many industries that require exposure to the elements. They are also recognisable for their use in a series of well-known Fender guitar pickups. Neodymium magnets (made from the metals neodymium and iron and the metalloid boron) are also highly coercive and are the strongest kind of permanent magnet available today. Despite their relatively high cost are becoming more and more commonplace; applications include HDDs (computer hard disk drives), loudspeakers, cordless power tools, heavy-duty locks and electric vehicles. What are non-magnetic metals?There are other types of magnetic materials, but for the purpose of this article and day-to-day applications of magnets, these would be considered non-magnetic as they are not attracted to a magnet in a way that could be felt or used in normal circumstances. Paramagnetic materials such as tungsten, aluminium, platinum, and magnesium are extremely weakly magnetic, hundreds of thousands of times weaker than a regular ferrite magnet. Diamagnetic materials are repellent at both poles of a magnetic field.   Examples of diamagnetic metals include gold, mercury and elemental copper. Ferritic stainless steels, as you would probably expect, are generally magnetic due to their higher iron content, however, some stainless-steel grades are non-magnetic as they are austenitic, (such as 304 and 316) meaning they have been alloyed with a combination of either nickel, manganese, or nitrogen to achieve a specific crystal microstructure that results in them being unaffected by a magnet. Finally, as precious metals such as silver and gold are non-magnetic, using a magnet is also a good test of the purity of your jewellery; if it is attracted to a magnet, you might want to head back to the jeweller!

Ferrous metals vs non-ferrous metals

Ferrous metals vs non-ferrous metals What is the difference between ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals?Before we explore the different properties and characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, it’s important to understand the fundamental difference between the two; ferrous metals are metals that contain iron, while non-ferrous metals do not. Generally speaking, ferrous metals are cheaper to source and produce, although they corrode much more easily than non-ferrous metals. Barring a few exceptions, ferrous metals are magnetic, a property often used to identify and separate ferrous and non-ferrous metals, for example for scrap or recycling.  Whilst iron and steel are commonplace now, humans worked with non-ferrous metals such as copper, tin, bronze, lead and many precious metals for many thousands of years until somewhere around 1500BC, commonly referred to as the Iron Age. Ferrous metals.The category of ferrous metals contains a number of iron alloys and types of steel, all of which are generally heavier, stronger and more durable than non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals are found throughout manufacturing, construction and architecture in bridges, railroads, high-rise buildings and almost endless applications.  Ferrous metals are vulnerable to rust due to their iron content, and often need to be treated or protected to avoid this by polishing,  surface treating, or using appropriate metal paints and primers. Ferrous metals are also generally magnetic, allowing for quick identification and sorting by simply sifting through scrap or other metal with an extremely powerful industrial magnet.  Recycling ferrous metals is a complicated process, involving many steps including melting, reforming, recasting and purifying; however it is still a cheaper and more environmentally friendly option than extracting more raw ore. By far the most widely used ferrous metal is steel. Stainless steel.Stainless steel is a shiny, smooth alloy containing chromium, nickel, and manganese, with an aesthetically pleasing silver appearance. It is an unusual ferrous metal in that it is actually highly corrosion resistant due to its chromium content, meaning it is often used in culinary or surgical environments where hygiene is key. Carbon steel.Carbon steel is extremely hard and strong, usually made from over 90% iron. High carbon steel is widely used in construction and manufacturing, in girders, structural shapes, tools, machinery parts and gears. Wrought iron.Wrought iron is actually highly corrosion-resistant due to its low carbon content and is used in many scenarios, including agriculture, gates and fences, and other outdoor decorative items. Cast iron.Cast iron is hard, brittle, wear-resistant, and heat-resistant, and widely used in cookware, engines, automotive parts, pipes, and stoves. Non-ferrous metals.As we have established, almost every pure metal and any alloy not containing iron is non-ferrous, meaning they all have different characteristics, properties and uses. However, they do generally share some similarities.  Because non-ferrous metals do not contain iron, they cannot rust, as rust is only formed when oxygen reacts with iron. However, this does not mean they are unaffected by other forms of corrosion. Aside from a couple of rare exceptions, non-ferrous metals are also non-magnetic, as iron is the only ferro-magnetic metal. Sometimes people believe that copper or brass are magnetic due to some coins in the UK being attracted to magnets; however, these are actually made from plated steel. Many non-ferrous metals are highly malleable, meaning they can be reused and reshaped without degrading or loosing their valuable chemical properties. It is possible to recycle most non-ferrous metals multiple times, meaning they are often a more environmentally friendly, economical, and energy-saving option. There are very few non-ferrous metals that can compete with steel or iron in terms of tensile strength or ability to bear weight or resist force. Those that do share some of these properties, such as tungsten or titanium, tend to be prohibitively expensive and impossible to use in the quantities required for large-scale construction or industrial applications. It is important to note that some non-ferrous alloys may contain an insignificant amount of iron, but not enough for them to share any properties of ferrous metals and therefore be categorised as such. Aluminium.Aluminium is a highly versatile metal with a great strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminium is great at resisting corrosion, and is often found in marine applications, aerospace engineering, automobiles and many home appliances and every-day items such as cans and cookware. Copper.Copper is one of the most successful conductors of electricity and heat, and is extremely ductile and malleable. Copper is commonly used for wires and other electrical components as well as roofing, piping and some machinery. Bronze and brass are alloys of copper. Zinc.Zinc is highly corrosion resistant and has a low melting point, usually used as a rust-preventative protective coating applied to steel through a process called galvanising. Precious metals.Gold, silver and platinum are all non-ferrous metals, and are most commonly used for jewellery or other decorative purposes. Other metals.There are in fact a few magnetic non-ferrous metals, including nickel and cobalt. Other non-ferrous metals include lead, tin, mercury and lithium.

What is the strongest metal?

What is the strongest metal? How can you test the strength of metal? The strength of metal can be measured using  different scales;  tensile strength, compressive strength, yield strength, surface hardness, and impact strength. Each of the different ways to measure strength have their benefits and disadvantages, so it is worth taking the time to understand the difference between the techniques to help you choose the most appropriate metal for the project depending on which strength characteristic you need. Tensile strength is a measure of resistance of metal before it breaks, deforms, or fails under pressure. The metal is clamped between two sets of clamps which are then pulled apart to apply a tensile load to the metal, measurements are recorded at differing points of the plastic deformation process; plastic deformation is when a material is permanently distorted and deformed by torsion stress, compression, and bending that causes elongation, twisting, and buckling. Tensile strength tests report three types of tensile strengths. Tensile yield strength is the strength recorded before the sample begins to plastically deform. Ultimate tensile strength is a measure of the maximum strength of the metal after plastic deformation has been recorded. Fracture tensile strength is the recorded strength at the point of complete metal failure. This resistance is measured in psi (pounds per square inch). Impact strength is the amount of energy a metal can absorb via impact before it shatters, deforms, or snaps. The most commonly used test to determine impact strength is the Charpy V-notch test where a sample of metal has a notch cut into it to correspond with the test standard criteria and is then secured in the V-notch testing equipment. The notch is the specific place the metal will fail when a weighted pendulum is released, and the energy absorbed by the impact is recorded. This test is useful for applications where the metal will be used intentionally to receive repeated impact stress. Compressive strength is the limit of compression a metal can tolerate before it reaches the point of failure. The metal is placed between two plates and compressed between them, the range of deformation in the metal is compared to the measure of the load applied to give a reading of the maximum load capacity. Compression testing is useful for components made from metals that will be load bearing as maintaining their integrity under compressive force is of paramount importance. Yield strength is the measurement of the metal’s elasticity. The material is tested for the ability to withstand bending and its ability to return to its original form before reaching the point of failure. The strength scale relates to the point at which the metal is permanently deformed and will not return to its original form once the stress has been removed. Mohs hardness is an ordinal scale that measures the surface hardness of minerals and materials, this is often also referred to as ‘scratch testing’. Knowing the surface hardness or scratch resistance is useful when selecting materials where damage from abrasion would hinder the desired aesthetic or when wear would compromise the integrity of the component. The Mohs hardness scale ranks talc at 1 as being the softest surface and diamond as 10. The scale has been modified by geologists since it was first used back in 1820, some versions placing diamond at 15- but the convention of Mohs scale remains the most used. The strongest metals.Tungsten  is often alloyed with steel to create ‘high speed steel’ due to having the top tensile strength of any metal at around 142,000 psi. It is, however, very brittle in its rare form and can shatter with a relatively low impact strength compared to some other metals. Iridium is a high-density element that belongs to the platinum group of metals, it is extremely brittle and has a melting point in excess of 2,000°C  which makes it extremely difficult to work with, however, it has a very high resistance to corrosion which makes it a valuable alloying element. Steel is probably the best known of  the strongest metals and is widely used across industries worldwide. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon which can be alloyed with a wide range of elements to produce a range of metal grades of varying mechanical and chemical properties suitable for a range of different uses. For example, stainless steel is extremely resistant to corrosion and chromoly steel is stronger than regular low carbon steel because of the added chromium and molybdenum. These additions increase hardenability, corrosion resistance, toughness, and resistance to temperature fluctuations. Two of the strongest grades of steel are EN24T and T45 which are widely used across engineering, aeronautics, and motor sport due to their reliable mechanical properties. EN24T is a high strength engineering steel that can be heat-treated to produce a variety of different strength alloys for use in harsh environments and heavy-duty industries. EN24T is very popular for use in industries where hardness, tensile strength, and resistance to wear are important such as bolts and shafts, gears and cams, and heavy-duty vehicle axles. T45 is a seamless manganese steel tube known for its strength and can withstand high levels of G force before failure making it an extremely popular steel for the aeronautical industry as well as for racing cars. It is used for manufacturing anti-roll bars and roll cages where significant strength is needed for safety, however, its incredible strength means the tubes can be manufactured with thinner walls to reduce weight without compromising strength. Osmium  is an extremely dense metal with a very high melting point. Found predominantly in platinum ores, Osmium is extremely strong but brittle, but when alloyed with other platinum group metals it provides high levels of hardness. Chromium  is commonly alloyed with steel because of its hardenability and its resistance to corrosion. Titanium  is a low-density metal with a moderate tensile strength of 63,000 psi. It has the highest ratio for tensile strength versus density of any metal. It is often alloyed with iron or aluminium to make extremely light but extremely strong alloys for use in aeronautics, racing cars and in the cycling industry.  So, which is the strongest metal?Whilst there are several extraordinarily strong metals, the answer to the question of which is the strongest metal comes down to which metal is most suitable for the proposed application. It is not possible to do a direct comparison between the metals listed because strength and mechanical properties are measured in a variety of ways. Steel, although not as strong as tungsten or iridium for example, is widely considered to be the metal of choice across engineering, construction, aviation, and transport infrastructure globally. By utilising different strengths and properties of alloying elements, it is possible to produce a grade of steel that meets all the criteria for a project; strength, corrosion resistance, weldability, weight, machinability, and durability without costing the earth as steel can also be repeatedly recycled without losing any of its mechanical or chemical properties.  

What is the strongest metal?

What is the strongest metal? How can you test the strength of metal? The strength of metal can be measured using  different scales;  tensile strength, compressive strength, yield strength, surface hardness, and impact strength. Each of the different ways to measure strength have their benefits and disadvantages, so it is worth taking the time to understand the difference between the techniques to help you choose the most appropriate metal for the project depending on which strength characteristic you need. Tensile strength is a measure of resistance of metal before it breaks, deforms, or fails under pressure. The metal is clamped between two sets of clamps which are then pulled apart to apply a tensile load to the metal, measurements are recorded at differing points of the plastic deformation process; plastic deformation is when a material is permanently distorted and deformed by torsion stress, compression, and bending that causes elongation, twisting, and buckling. Tensile strength tests report three types of tensile strengths. Tensile yield strength is the strength recorded before the sample begins to plastically deform. Ultimate tensile strength is a measure of the maximum strength of the metal after plastic deformation has been recorded. Fracture tensile strength is the recorded strength at the point of complete metal failure. This resistance is measured in psi (pounds per square inch). Impact strength is the amount of energy a metal can absorb via impact before it shatters, deforms, or snaps. The most commonly used test to determine impact strength is the Charpy V-notch test where a sample of metal has a notch cut into it to correspond with the test standard criteria and is then secured in the V-notch testing equipment. The notch is the specific place the metal will fail when a weighted pendulum is released, and the energy absorbed by the impact is recorded. This test is useful for applications where the metal will be used intentionally to receive repeated impact stress. Compressive strength is the limit of compression a metal can tolerate before it reaches the point of failure. The metal is placed between two plates and compressed between them, the range of deformation in the metal is compared to the measure of the load applied to give a reading of the maximum load capacity. Compression testing is useful for components made from metals that will be load bearing as maintaining their integrity under compressive force is of paramount importance. Yield strength is the measurement of the metal’s elasticity. The material is tested for the ability to withstand bending and its ability to return to its original form before reaching the point of failure. The strength scale relates to the point at which the metal is permanently deformed and will not return to its original form once the stress has been removed. Mohs hardness is an ordinal scale that measures the surface hardness of minerals and materials, this is often also referred to as ‘scratch testing’. Knowing the surface hardness or scratch resistance is useful when selecting materials where damage from abrasion would hinder the desired aesthetic or when wear would compromise the integrity of the component. The Mohs hardness scale ranks talc at 1 as being the softest surface and diamond as 10. The scale has been modified by geologists since it was first used back in 1820, some versions placing diamond at 15- but the convention of Mohs scale remains the most used. The strongest metals.Tungsten  is often alloyed with steel to create ‘high speed steel’ due to having the top tensile strength of any metal at around 142,000 psi. It is, however, very brittle in its rare form and can shatter with a relatively low impact strength compared to some other metals. Iridium is a high-density element that belongs to the platinum group of metals, it is extremely brittle and has a melting point in excess of 2,000°C  which makes it extremely difficult to work with, however, it has a very high resistance to corrosion which makes it a valuable alloying element. Steel is probably the best known of  the strongest metals and is widely used across industries worldwide. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon which can be alloyed with a wide range of elements to produce a range of metal grades of varying mechanical and chemical properties suitable for a range of different uses. For example, stainless steel is extremely resistant to corrosion and chromoly steel is stronger than regular low carbon steel because of the added chromium and molybdenum. These additions increase hardenability, corrosion resistance, toughness, and resistance to temperature fluctuations. Two of the strongest grades of steel are EN24T and T45 which are widely used across engineering, aeronautics, and motor sport due to their reliable mechanical properties. EN24T is a high strength engineering steel that can be heat-treated to produce a variety of different strength alloys for use in harsh environments and heavy-duty industries. EN24T is very popular for use in industries where hardness, tensile strength, and resistance to wear are important such as bolts and shafts, gears and cams, and heavy-duty vehicle axles. T45 is a seamless manganese steel tube known for its strength and can withstand high levels of G force before failure making it an extremely popular steel for the aeronautical industry as well as for racing cars. It is used for manufacturing anti-roll bars and roll cages where significant strength is needed for safety, however, its incredible strength means the tubes can be manufactured with thinner walls to reduce weight without compromising strength. Osmium  is an extremely dense metal with a very high melting point. Found predominantly in platinum ores, Osmium is extremely strong but brittle, but when alloyed with other platinum group metals it provides high levels of hardness. Chromium  is commonly alloyed with steel because of its hardenability and its resistance to corrosion. Titanium  is a low-density metal with a moderate tensile strength of 63,000 psi. It has the highest ratio for tensile strength versus density of any metal. It is often alloyed with iron or aluminium to make extremely light but extremely strong alloys for use in aeronautics, racing cars and in the cycling industry.  So, which is the strongest metal?Whilst there are several extraordinarily strong metals, the answer to the question of which is the strongest metal comes down to which metal is most suitable for the proposed application. It is not possible to do a direct comparison between the metals listed because strength and mechanical properties are measured in a variety of ways. Steel, although not as strong as tungsten or iridium for example, is widely considered to be the metal of choice across engineering, construction, aviation, and transport infrastructure globally. By utilising different strengths and properties of alloying elements, it is possible to produce a grade of steel that meets all the criteria for a project; strength, corrosion resistance, weldability, weight, machinability, and durability without costing the earth as steel can also be repeatedly recycled without losing any of its mechanical or chemical properties.  

Why should steel be finishing? What are the main contents of the finishing?

Steel finishing is an indispensable process in the rolling steel production process. The purpose of finishing is to ultimately guarantee product quality. Finishing includes all the operations of rolling steel after cooling (such as slow cooling, etc.), heat treatment, straightening, pickling, cleaning, grading, and packaging until the finished product warehouse. Due to the technical requirements of the products, the content of the finishing process is also very different. The basic process of steel finishing is shown in the figure:In order to ensure the quality of the national plan and order contract, reduce metal consumption and product costs, the final process of steel rolling production - steel finishing process, should be carried out in strict accordance with various regulations.Reasonable stacking and scientific management of steel during the finishing process are also important. If the management is not good, it will cause the finished steel mixing furnace to be chaotic, and even scrapped in batches.

What is the delivery condition?

It refers to the state of final plastic deformation or final heat treatment of the delivered product. The hot-rolled or cold drawn (rolled) state or manufacturing state generally delivered without heat treatment; the heat treatment state after heat treatment delivery, or the normalizing, tempering, solid solution, annealing according to the type of heat treatment status. When ordering, the delivery status must be stated in the contract.

What is the relationship between hardness and tensile strength?

When the hardness of the steel is below 500 HB, the tensile strength is proportional to the hardness, kg/mm2(óB)=1/3 X HB=3.2 X HRC=2.1 X HS, but the above relation is not in any case. Established, from the aspect of heat treatment, when the tempering temperature is low, the correlation between kg/mm2 and HRC may be destroyed. The relationship between tempering temperature, hardness and tensile strength of steel is shown in the figure.From this figure, it can be seen that the hardness decreases with the increase of the tempering temperature, but the relationship between the hardness and the tensile strength is hardly established in the quenched state and tempering at a temperature of 300° C. or lower. When the tempering temperature is around 300°C, there is a correlation between kg/mm2 and HRC, that is, the hardness is high, the tensile strength is high, the hardness is low, and the tensile strength is low. It is difficult to find the value of kg/mm2 in the low temperature tempering state because the distribution of the tensile strength values is very discrete. Since the temperature/kg2 of the low-temperature tempering material is unstable, it cannot be determined. Therefore, in the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS), the tensile properties of the temperature tempering material of 400°C or higher (also tempered workpieces of 300°C) are also tested. In other words, the tensile test was performed only on the tempered parts (quenched +400°C tempered). Industrially, the use of low-temperature tempering parts is only required when anti-rotational bending fatigue and wear resistance are required. High frequency quenching and carburizing quenching are examples of this application. Tensile stress parts do not use low temperature tempering. However, in low-carbon steels, quenching M can be self-tempered (so the Ms point is high), and there are also users in the quenched state. The low-carbon steel lath martensite structure is self-tempered and can be applied industrially. However, the hardenability and mass effect must be considered at this time (if necessary, B, Cr, Mn, and other metal elements should be added).